State is captured or dominated by particular interest groups or ethnicities and may be characterised by patronage politics and corruption.

Lack of citizen engagement in political process and public policy

Poorly managed governance reforms

A close / uncritical donor / state relationship increases the ‘external’ legitimacy of a regime, and internal disillusionment and disaffection with the state.

Conversely, sudden criticism of a regime by development donors (eg regarding lack of adequate internal audit related to use of budgetary support) fuels grievances and feeds internal tensions.

Poorly monitored and managed support via government budgets or tenders leads to increased levels of corruption.

Inequitable sector policies developed with inadequate consultation, or consultation dominated by particular interests or groups (eg an education policy which favours a particular language group; a decentralisation process which fails to address inequalities and marginalisation of excluded groups)

Uneven development process contributing to creation of discontented groups

Land / agricultural policy

Liberalisation and privatisation programmes

Assistance to sectors is unevenly distributed reinforcing differences (eg geographically or between groups).

Withdrawal or downscaling of assistance (across a range of sectors) to a particular area creates a vacuum which benefits belligerent groups.

Poor natural resource management leads to scarcity, resource competition and conflict.

Resettlement schemes alter the ethnic balance of a region feeding ethnic tensions.

Can serve elite interests and generate conflict